Professional Communication in Nursing for Principles of Care

Question: Talk about the Professional Communication in Nursing for Principles of Care. Answer: Presentation Correspondence is a method used to pass data and understand importance in our regular daily existence. It is the trading of message between people. There are various strategies for correspondence including talking, tuning, recorded as a hard copy and perusing; which are all types of verbal correspondence. Furthermore, signals, non-verbal communication and works of art are different techniques for going across data; these are non-verbal strategies for correspondence. Much the same as social discussions are significant, restorative discussions as they help fabricate connections between the attendants and the patients. Restorative correspondence is a common association between these two gatherings during which the medical caretakers major on the specific needs of their patients and advance an adequate sharing of data (Arnold and Boggs, 2011). The medical attendants utilize helpful relational abilities as they endeavor to give new messages, right falsehood and lift patients comprehension of their medical issues, ask into alternatives for care, help patients to settle on decisions and advance the prosperity of patients. The substance of corrective correspondence is to proffer the patients an opportunity to see the meant significance of their ailment and fathoming and offering data and passionate help that every patient needs to accomplish level best wellbeing (Webb, 2011). Along these lines, remedial correspondence is not at all like social collaborations. Foundation Information Attendants speak with the patients and their relatives so as to accomplish reverential consideration and brilliant aftereffects of patient consideration. Correspondence empowers the attendants to think about the patients analyzed infection as well as, each need and aspect of the customers they interface with. Arnold and Boggs (2011) place that logical information isn't the main demand in the nursing calling. Much more is of embodiment including scholarly, relational and specialized aptitudes and capacities. As per the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), proficient correspondence is a fundamental factor in all parts of nursing care and especially, it is an imperative component in practically all the nursing mediations including treatment, treatment, anticipation, instruction, recovery and advancement of wellbeing. Moreover, the healthy work of thinking about the wiped out is accomplished through a relational situation, through exchange and furthermore with authoritative a ptitudes of both non-verbal and verbal correspondence (Webb, 2011). There exists some dispute between the to some degree low level of patient satisfaction and the daedal nursing calling and a definitive result of the nursing procedure is an issue that has been seen across numerous countries in the whole globe (Kozier et al., 2014). Research has demonstrated that this wonder comes because of a poor customer nurture relational correspondence process. Accordingly, as Webb (2011) watches, a splendid medical attendant customer correspondence is central for the agreeable result of singularized minding of every customer. Soil, Dallas and Dawsonera (2010) note that to achieve this, proficient medical caretakers are energetically prescribed to as a matter of first importance comprehend and from there on help their customers exhibiting truthfulness, kindness and goodness. Attendants ought to devote time for correspondence with their customers, maintaining the imperative privacy. Theory explanation: Appropriate correspondence strategies empower the medical caretakers to construct remedial associations with patients which add to the all encompassing consideration and ideal patient results. This exposition will feature the idea of expert correspondence in nursing and its significance in accomplishing individual focused consideration and compelling documentation. Situation: This paper utilizes the instance of a male patient, R. N., 63 years of age. He whines around a couple of medical problems. He is anxious to better his wellbeing by taking part in ordinary exercise, right eating less junk food and change of way of life. Individual Centered Care As a guideline, individual focused consideration gives a presumption that the attendant would work with the patients viewpoint of their own circumstance, notwithstanding that which is demonstrated by a clinical finding (Kozier et al., 2014). In accordance with this, from the reference case above, it is obvious that R. Ns most prominent intrigue is to improve his wellbeing through ordinary physical movement, right counting calories and meaning of positive changes to his present lifestyle. On this respect, as a key constituent in the different models previously structured by nurture academicians to help the medical attendants who practice to apply individual focused consideration, the attendant to who N. R introduced himself ought to become more acquainted with him independently. Moreover, the medical attendant should be as responsive as conceivable as he gives beneficial consideration including giving N. R exhortation on solid consuming less calories, ordinary practicing and general sound living. For example, much the same as he makes time to spend time with his little girl, grandkids and companions, the medical attendant ought to request that he attempt and discover time for standard physical action. What's more, on consuming less calories, he can send him to see an enrolled dietician. The medical caretaker should regard N. Rs needs, inclinations and qualities like for this situation, religion; N. R is a Buddhist. The medical attendant should try to cultivate trusting providing care relations, giving a great deal of accentuation on his opportunity of decision. For example, the medical attendant can laud him for stopping smoking and maybe offer him with the choice of nicotine substitution treatment on the grounds that the patient reports on missing not havin g his cigarettes. Another suitable guidance would be cutting on his liquor admission. On the off chance that conceivable, the medical attendant ought to include N. Rs girl and grandkids as would be proper. By doing this, the medical attendant would show the amount he regards N. Rs most grounded interests he would say wellbeing and needs as the patient. Doing this would make N. R see himself as being cardinal in the nursing and caring procedure. As indicated by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), the reception of honest individual focused consideration is a significant perceptible marvel by and by of expert nursing While Lloyd, Hancock and Campbell (2011) call attention to that this guideline requests aptitudes and fortuitously the open intentions of the medical attendant to make sense of what the worry of the patient is, Arnold Boggs (2011) concur with their line of thought when they note that it isn't sufficiently adequate to just comprehend the customer passing on a worthy message similarly fundamental. This rule ponders that there is an emphasis on the contact between the medical attendant and the patient in the brought together restorative procedure. Compelling Documentation Proposition: Different records utilized over the nursing care plan play an essential capacity in going across data imperative to the present and persistent consideration of patients. It is basic in building a remedial connection between the medical caretakers and the patients. At the point when the correspondence job of documentation impedes the movement of data and, advances the overflowing of overflow occasions which accumulate to persistent security bargain and perhaps negative patient standpoints in this way; poor restorative relationship. These reports likewise fill in as legitimate records. Situation: As a record or report of exercises encompassing nursing care and, as a method of building a remedial relationship, N. Rs documentation would incorporate his clinical record remembering change for his ailment, the organization of any clinical tests, methods, treatment of fundamental conditions and patient training with his reaction to every one of them. N. Rs documentation would likewise incorporate his reaction to any proposed intercession, an evaluation of the anticipated outcome and any disappointment from him or his family. It would likewise contain a legitimate record which ensures him as well as the expert and the establishment. As indicated by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (2014), the guideline of powerful documentation has advanced as an end result to the proportions of the act of medication, administrative and legitimate measures, institutional approaches and standards of the general public. In accordance with this, Kangasniemi, Pakkanen and Korhonen (2015) concur that viable documentation is basic in building a helpful relationship. End In synopsis, correspondence in itself is an essential quality of human instinct. It gets the job done to say that correspondence is consistently unidirectional. As a central structure of the longstanding production of Hippocratic clinical science, correspondence isn't just settled on the essential capacity that changes from one individual to the next yet it depends on the imperative preparing and the gained understanding during ones profession (Kozier et al., 2014). The resultant result of this is a demonstration of significant comprehension of the customers with higher addition to them and, with singular happiness to the medical caretaker for having worked admirably. Besides, proficient correspondence improves the consideration given to the patients. Additionally, it is deliberately weighed as a non-debatable right and a necessity for building up a genuine connection between the medical attendants and the patients not barring different experts in the wellbeing part (Speziale Carpent er, 2011). References Arnold, E., Boggs, K. U. (2011). Relational connections: Professional relational abilities for medical attendants. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier/Saunders. Consumes, N., Grove, S. K. (2010). Understanding Nursing Research-eBook: Building an Evidence-Based Practice. Spot of distribution not distinguished. Kangasniemi, M., Pakkanen, P., Korhonen, A. (2015). Proficient morals in nursing: an integrative review.Journal of cutting edge nursing,71(8), 1744-1757. Kozier, B., Erb, G. L., Berman, A., Snyder, S., Levett-Jones, T., Dwyer, T. (2014). Kozier and Erbs Fundamentals of Nursing Volumes 1-3 Australian Edition eBook. Melbourne: P.Ed Australia. Lloyd, H., Hancock, H., Campbell, S. (2011). Fundamental Notes for Nu

The Amish Community: the Effects of Subsistence on Aspects

The Amish Community: The Effects of Subsistence on Aspects of a Culture Tristin Bovee ANT 101 Ilda Jimenez y West October 29, 2012 The Amish Community: The Effects of Subsistence on Aspects of a Culture Any individual who watches an Amish people group may get a brief look at a way of life that looks as though it clings to no bit of rationale. For what reason would an entire gathering of individuals decide to live without the innovation that makes life so a lot simpler? The appropriate response is basic and straightforward; social preservation.The Amish are socially mindful of themselves, and as such have invested the energy to continue their customs and lifestyle for many years (Kraybill, 2001). The further innovation progresses on the planet outside of the Amish people group, the more extensive the Amish way of life becomes from the cutting edge American culture among which they live. Notwithstanding, if the Amish conviction framework is seen from an anthropological point of view, t heir qualities and thinking is significantly more justifiable to present day masterminds. There are a wide range of organizations of the Amish conviction framework yet for effortlessness, this paper will focus on the Old Order Amish.The Amish confidence sprung out of customary Protestantism in the sixteenth century. At that point alluded to as Anabaptists, the Amish accepted that immersion ought not happen in youngsters or babies, yet just in grown-ups that can settle on the choice for themselves (Kraybill, 2001). They likewise required a partition among chapel and state, and an arrival to exacting understanding of the holy book. Languishing outrageous oppression over their convictions, the Amish fled to northern Europe to get away from unforgiving treatment from specialists and strict pioneers the same (Fischetti, 1997).While living in these remote areas, the Amish developed reliant on horticulture for their vocation. Agribusiness has been the essential method of Amish life from th at point onward. Numerous Amish convictions today are originated from their means methodology of rising horticulture. Body The most generally known conviction of the Amish people group includes the refusal to utilize power or present day innovation, for example, TV, in their homes. The Amish conviction framework is revolved around family and network esteems and all things considered, they hold a solid conviction that cutting edge innovation breaks those connections (Fischetti, 1997).The utilization of power opens the entryways for broad communications impact which holds the chance of cracking Amish conventional qualities. The very qualities that the Amish hold are an aftereffect of their rising horticultural resource. At the point when job relies upon getting harvests and dairying, network and family are the essential methods of work, and participation is absolutely critical so as to keep up their lifestyle. A few examiners contend that the independence found in current societies is caused basically by industrialization (Kraybill, 2001).By staying away from present day innovation and said industrialization, the Amish accept they are keeping up their intently weave networks. From the etic point of view, this may appear to constrain the personal satisfaction that the Amish live, particularly their childhood, yet from an emic viewpoint, this is the way of life that they know works for them and doesn't challenge what they accept. Amish grown-ups are just paying special mind to the prosperity of their kids on an otherworldly level. Like band social orders, the Amish don't have faith in collecting riches; they have confidence in having what one needs to survive.Beyond suffering, what is critical to them is helping one another, which is a viewpoint in many societies that develop or rummage for their own food (Marlow, 1996). Amish and band social orders share a lot of practically speaking, for example, their corresponding monetary arrangement of general correspondence . A proportional monetary framework is an assortment of exchange between relatives (Nowak and Laird, 2010). General correspondence is a trade without a moment return or a decided estimation of the exchange (Nowak and Laird, 2010); this is the thing that the Amish people group rehearses between members.Within the Amish, help or supplies are offered openly to the individuals who are needing it; the supplier realizes that anybody in their general public would do likewise for them under comparative conditions. Because of their confidence in independence inside their locale, the Amish don't have faith in government help. Combined with the aggregate Amish decrease of private social insurance, one may think about how they pay for clinical costs; their congregation and network. The Amish church gets most clinical expenses, and what it doesn't cover is gotten by the individual family and community.The Amish way of life depends on the exacting understanding of the Christian book of scriptures , just as a lot of unwritten, versatile rules called the Amish Ordnung. The Amish Ordnung gives the Amish people group social capital, or familiarity with the ethics, standards, feelings and duties of Amish life (Kraybill, 2001). It diagrams right conduct, attire decision and advancements that are considered worthy for use unafraid of decimating the family (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). The rules that the Amish Ordnung traces are changeable.This is to more readily encourage arrangements toward the challenges of living in contemporary society while keeping up their social legacy and convictions (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). While numerous individuals living in present day society have confidence or some likeness thereof, the Amish live their confidence consistently. Each part of their life is revolved around their scriptural understandings and convictions. Family and network are an immense piece of the Amish conviction framework which is apparent by the manner in which their connection frameworks work and live respectively. The Amish are a male centric society.Men are the providers and subsequently the leader of the family; ladies guarantee the upkeep of the home and the childhood of the kids (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). These sexual orientation jobs start at an exceptionally youthful age. In certain social orders, for example, pastoralist social orders, this division of work by means of sex makes a situation of disparity for male relatives (Nowak and Laird, 2010). This isn't the situation in an Amish family unit; every relative is regarded and esteemed for the individual they are, and furthermore for the work they accomplish.The solid family unit and the division of work being sexual orientation based furnish the Amish with a system to put forth for their youngsters the significance of their convictions (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). Youthful individuals from an Amish people group are not required to be sanctified through water into their co nfidence until eighteen years old (Kraybill, 2001). Eighteen years living inside an Amish people group brings about these children knowing nothing else and it is regularly simple for them to settle on the choice to keep carrying on with their accomplished way of life. In any case, ought to anAmish kid deny, they would be disregarded. Evading is the training inside the Amish people group of banning individuals who don't hold to the network convictions. Most guardians might want to keep their kids as close as could be expected under the circumstances, which is simply one more inspiration for inundating their youngsters in the Amish world so as to shield them from being evaded. Frequently, a few ages of more distant families live in neighboring homes and work a similar farmland. This is on the grounds that a huge piece of who makes up an Amish people group is dictated by geographic closeness (Kraybill, 2001).Amish grandparents will regularly resign to a home on the ranch alluded to as a frump house (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). These practices show the arrangement of an emotionally supportive network through all phases of life. Social orders which practice agribusiness for means regularly set up huge families to help with the measure of work required for cultivating (Nowak and Laird, 2010). This is shown in Amish families, which on normal produce six kids for every family unit (Kraybill, 2001). In any case, horticulture is getting less normal among Amish people group as there is little farmland sufficiently enormous to oblige them.This has driven numerous Amish families to perceive the significance of family arranging, since small cultivating requires less ranch work and family help with ranch tasks (Donnermeyer and Friedrich, 2002). Likewise, numerous Amish families have gone to selling made things to enhance the salary lost from the declining measures of agribusiness. In the book, Riddle of Amish Culture, writer Donald Kraybill (2001) states that â€Å"th e sign of Amish society has been an affectionate, profoundly incorporated network where the strings of public activity are woven into a solitary texture that extends from support to grave† (pg. 19, para. 4).This statement stresses the Amish public activity focusing on family, network and church from birth to death. Social movement in the Amish people group can be portrayed in three words; family, network, and church. Amish society is sorted out into three essential social units. The main unit, the settlement, comprises of Amish families living inside a typical area and commonly extends in size from twelve families to a few thousand. The subsequent unit, the region, is the authoritative unit over the family and alludes to the congregation. One church region for the most part incorporates twenty-five to thirty-five families inside the quick area.The third unit, association, is the assortment of chapel areas that hold comparative strict practices and help out one another (Kraybil l, 2001). Amish kids are instructed in parochial schools, in which the most elevated level of training accomplished is the eighth grade (Kraybill, 2001). The Amish accept that their lifestyle doesn't require in excess of an eighth grade instruction; most Amish kids realize how to run a family unit a long time before they finish their tutoring. End If it weren’t for their lifestyle, they would have been accustomed to cultural standards long ago.However, the Amish individuals are equipped for seeing the world from an emic and etic point of view, apparently simultaneously. On account of this mindfulness, they can find a way to guaranteeing the surv

How Entrepreneurial Creativity Leads to Innovation

How Entrepreneurial Creativity Leads to Innovation Believe it or not, business entails creativity, and not just a little, but a lot. Taking into account the fact that all things and all results start out from a single idea â€" which requires a lot of creativity â€" then it makes sense that business or entrepreneurship should also give a lot of credit to creativity. That is why there is such a thing as “entrepreneurial creativity”. © Shutterstock.com | Sunny studioThis guide will show you 1) the relation between entrepreneurship and the entrepreneur, 2) creativity in the context of entrepreneurship, and 3) how entrepreneurial creativity drives innovation.ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND THE ENTREPRENEURThere are a lot of people â€" even long-time entrepreneurs â€" who have a hard time pinning a definitive meaning for “entrepreneurial creativity”. One of its more popular definitions describes it as the act of “coming up with innovative ideas and turning these ideas into value-creating business activities which are, ultimately, profitable”. It sounds comprehensive enough, but we can try to do better. In order to fully understand what it is, let us first break it down into its smaller parts and define them.Entrepreneurship is broadly described as the “capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business venture and, along with it, its associated risks, for the primary purpose of earning a profit. Eco nomics has another way to define it, referring to it as the “process of discovering new ways of combining resources, such as land, labor and various natural resources, and capital, in order to make a profit”. In today’s context, when one is about to engage in business, he or she is said to be practicing entrepreneurship and, as a result, comes to be known as the entrepreneur.There is this general perception that business people are automatically entrepreneurs. We always hear people who establish and manage business enterprises referred to as entrepreneurs. That is not entirely and automatically true. You see, an entrepreneur can become a business person, but not all business persons are assumed to be entrepreneurs. How is this possible?An entrepreneur is described as someone who is capable of using his or her “innate potentials” in order to create value by coming up with a package or collection of resources. He is someone who can spot an opportunity from a mile away and ca n easily think of ways to exploit it. The entrepreneur is also viewed to have the capability to build something out of very little or, sometimes, even from practically nothing.Find out more about the qualities and the mindset of entrepreneurs by reading through the following presentation.[slideshare id=36492017doc=entrepreneurlessons-140630232420-phpapp01w=640h=330]In a business setting, we can try to compare Person A and Person B. Both are looking for ways to make a profit. Person A uses what resources he has in order to start a business that already has a ready market. The market he is trying to enter already has several of similar types of businesses. Person B, on the other hand, takes one look at the market and, instead of starting a business that already exists within that market, proceeds to set up one that has not yet operated or opened up before.In fact, just as there is a huge possibility that the business will succeed, there is also that equally huge possibility that it wi ll not work at all.Between the two business people, Person B is the entrepreneur. He is the risk-taker of the two, preferring to strike out on his own, with a business idea that has not yet been tried or tested in that market before. It goes without saying that being an entrepreneur involves having to deal with a lot of uncertainties; after all, entrepreneurs are known to be risk-takers.This level of uncertainty and the high degrees of risk involved naturally drives entrepreneurs to become more determined and driven. They have more to lose, so they are more inclined to put in more work. Thus, they have to exert high levels of energy â€" including creative energy â€" in order to bring about results. Originality is also a trait that is never too far removed from an entrepreneur and, we are all aware that originality requires creativity â€" lots of it.Industries would not be what they are today without the entrepreneur. If all business people played it safe, then there is no way that w e would have a global business landscape as diverse and dynamic as the one that is thriving today. It is through their brilliant minds and creative ideas that business and industry have been molded and shaped to its current state.CREATIVITY AND ENTREPRENEURSHIPTrue entrepreneurs are often described as possessing a “mix of creativity and irrationality”. They are creative in the sense that they have clear visions of what they want in the future, and they have the abilities to achieve what they have envisioned, but they are also somewhat irrational, in the sense that they are willing to take risks and face uncertainties. Even when others are going in one direction, they are willing to go against the tide, stubbornly taking another route, in the belief that, by following that route, they can obtain that vision.There are several ways to define creativity, and we will try to touch on each one briefly.Creativity is an ability, an attitude, and a process. First, it means having the “a bility to use one’s imaginative skill in order to come up with something new, whether by production, invention, or innovation”. It mostly stems from coming up with ideas and, by manipulating, combining or reapplying with them, being able to generate more ideas that no one has come up with before.In order to be able to come up with new ideas, one has to be flexible and become receptive to change. Otherwise, they would not be able to recognize if an idea has a potential to be manipulated into something fresh and new. This is where creativity being an attitude or state of mind is factored in. For the entrepreneur, change is always welcome. Change is normal; change is healthy. Change is inevitable, so they might as well take advantage of it and use it creatively to their own advantage. In fact, entrepreneurs, more often than not, actively seek change.Now when does creativity become a process? Coming up with novel ideas does not come up in a snap; there is a gradual progress from a g erm of a thought or an idea to a full-blown solution. Usually, the first step is the identification of a problem. From there, the creative mind will proceed towards thinking of possible solutions to that problem. That, in itself, is a process.3 COMPONENTS OF CREATIVITYCreative thinking skillsThere are so many ways to look at one thing; why else would hundreds of people have hundreds of varying perceptions about a single subject or object? Similarly, there could only be one problem, but three different people could come up with three different solutions.This is a result of how differently they approach problems and formulate solutions. How is this possible? Because they have different ways of processing their thoughts, so that they come up with different ideas. Similarly, they also have different ways of combining these ideas together.This is creative thinking at work. Creativity in business is embodied in creative thinking, where entrepreneurs use their logic and reasoning, combined with the force of their imagination, to come up with solutions to already identified problems and challenges. In order to fully make use of one’s creativity, there is a need to be open to ideas and to be flexible. Keep in mind that most of the brilliant ideas arise from other ideas, and entrepreneurs start small: with an idea. You should be able to form your own opinion and come up with your own ideas. This independence is a trait that is seen in the best and most dynamic entrepreneurs.ExpertiseAs mentioned earlier, entrepreneurs take the first step by having an idea. They used their imagination and logical reasoning; that is the creative thinking part. Now they need to use their other raw material, their expertise.This encompasses everything that the aspiring entrepreneur knows, primarily his technical know-how and knowledge in business, particularly those that can be acquired from formal education, trainings and actual business and work experience.An entrepreneur just came up w ith an idea; now, in order to make that idea bear fruit, he must use what he knows in order to make it happen.MotivationYou have the brilliant idea, and you have the resources to get it started. Now you have to want to make it happen. This component of creativity is called motivation.Entrepreneurs must have a passion for the work or endeavor that they are to embark on. More than just a passing interest, they must have a desire or thirst for it. This is a classic case of creativity of entrepreneurs being spurred by loving the work that they are doing.From the discussion above, we can now have a better view on what entrepreneurial creativity is. It is the application of creative thinking by entrepreneurs when it comes to their ventures or business activities. It could come in the deceptively simple task of conceptualizing an amazing logo for the business, or it could be something more complex like drawing up a sales letter that will easily convince customers to spend their money on yo ur venture, business, or product.Another example of a show of entrepreneurial creativity is the ability to identify a gap in the market, and thinking of a product or a service to fill that gap. Even information-gathering has a degree of creativity involved.ENTREPRENEURIAL CREATIVITY AND INNOVATIONCreativity, in general, is a precursor to innovation, and Entrepreneurship has always been about innovation. The combination of creativity and an entrepreneurial spirit in the person of the entrepreneur will inevitably end up into innovation in business and value-creation. It goes without saying that creativity is already inherent among entrepreneurs; it is in their make-up. This entrepreneurial creativity is what sets them apart from your usual cardboard-cutout businessman or typical investor.You have the idea, you have the resources, and you even have a lot of motivation and passion to bring your idea to life. Now it is time to bring your brilliant idea to reality. This is called innovati on.Innovation definedThe simple definition of innovation is the “introduction of something new, fresh, or different”. From the point of view of an entrepreneur, it is the process where ideas and knowledge are combined to create new value, which are often new ideas that, in turn, create value that also results to more value-creating ideas. This series of events work like a chain reaction, triggering down the line.Guy Kawasaki diggs deeper into what innovation entails. Innovation boasts several key elements, which are also known as the 9 Cs. They include a challenge (the “pull), customer focus (the “push”), communication (the “life blood”), collaboration (the “heart), completion (the “muscle”), culture, contemplation (the “ladder”), context and, of course, creativity.Where does creativity come in? It is the “brain” that drives Innovation, since it requires a great deal of creativity in order to generate ideas, share them, and subsequently think about ways t o move them along.Innovation, in business, can take any of the following forms:Innovation in goods, products or services. Creative entrepreneurs are always thinking up of new products or services that are so innovative they have the ability to create or open up new markets. This is probably the most popular and common form of innovation.It is at this point that we must make a clear distinction between invention and innovation. These are two different concepts: invention is the creation of a product or a process for the very first time, while innovation is an improvement or significant change to an already existing product.Take, for example, the automobile industry. Earlier records show that the first true modern automobile was the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, which was built by Karl Benz, a German inventor. This is the invention. Here comes Ford Motor Company, and a whole slew of automobile manufacturers, and they continuously introduced their own take on the modern automobile, introduci ng new capabilities, improved parts. This is the innovation.Innovation in business process. These include technical and operational processes used in the manufacture of a product or provision of a service. For example, the creative entrepreneur can think of new processes, methods or technologies to reduce production costs, increase demand for the product, or even the overall productivity of the company. A simple veering away from a traditional operational structure is already a form of innovation.Another innovation that is credited to Henry Ford, Ford Motors’ founder was the introduction of more efficient manufacturing methods. This resulted to lower costs, which allowed Ford Motors to offer automobiles at lower prices. This targeted the middle class, and eventually increased Ford Motors’ market share and profitability.Innovation in the organizational structure. This refers mostly to the management and the administrative and ministerial side of things. It could be that the entre preneur thinks of new ways or techniques in how to make the most of its human resources or people.What is the importance of innovation in business and entrepreneurship?Let us say, for example, that a business has been manufacturing a product that was accepted very well by consumers. Sales are high and profits are also high. However, it is a fact that competition is always lurking on the sidelines. There is always the threat of other companies producing the same, or better, product. Therefore, the business has to find ways to add value to their existing product, in order for them to continue pleasing their customers.Being innovative is certainly one of the traits that demonstrate how competitive an entrepreneur is. Consumers are subject to the human nature of never being satisfied, so their demands will, no doubt, increase over time. It is up to the entrepreneur whether to be innovative so he can meet these increasing demands, or simply do nothing.As the entrepreneur introduces innov ations, new demand is created. When this happens, we are looking at a representation of the concept of “creative destruction”, where existing markets are destroyed to make way for new ones, only to be taken over and consumed by another set of newer market.The Creative Entrepreneur and the InnovatorThe creative entrepreneur is deemed to be the most ideal innovator, considering one of his personality traits of being flexible when it comes to change. In order to practice innovation, knowing when a change is looming and actually seeking it, and subsequently knowing how to respond to change, puts him in the best position to come up with innovative ideas.It has often been said that the entrepreneurship, as a whole, is characterized by taking risks and innovation, which is a roundabout way of saying that innovation and entrepreneurship almost always go together. When you add creativity to the mix, it is safe to say that innovation results from entrepreneurial creativity.If we go back t o the previous definitions of entrepreneurship, we will be reminded of how the “newness” and “freshness” factors strongly figure in it. Entrepreneurship is mainly about coming up with and introducing new ideas, new products, new services, and the like, and it is no different from the general concept of innovation.

School Entrance And Placement Test Of The Midwest

By the time students reach 11th grade, they have taken anywhere from 10-50 standardized tests. Possibly their most important test is yet to come. Colleges use the ACT in three main ways, to evaluate students in English, math, reading, and science, and writing for the purpose of college admissions, class placement, and scholarships. The purpose of the ACT is to assess academic achievement in a process free of discrimination, and error. It fails to fulfill this purpose. The main college entrance and placement test of the Midwest, the ACT, is insufficient, unethical, and unnecessary. The ACT is insufficient because it fails to accurately assess students’ academic skill because it is timed and contains only two forms of testing. The timed aspect of the ACT limits the depth of questions and the ability of a student to display comprehension on a subject. In 60 minutes on the math portion of the ACT, students must answer 60 questions. This leaves students with less than 60 seconds per question (factoring in time to read directions and fill in answers on the score sheet). There are normally many ways to solve a single math problem. On the ACT, students are only rewarded by knowing the fastest way to solve problems. For every hard math problems students do correctly, but thoroughly, they miss the opportunity to answer several problems, thus lowering their scores. Even brilliant math students will only receive high scores if they do the calculations quickly. Therefore, the ACT rewardsShow MoreRelatedThe Problems With College-Entrance Testing Essay2623 Words   |   11 Pages One of the most stressful experiences for a high school senior is the search for the college. So once these senior students finally develop a plan, why is it that they may not be able to achieve what they desire? Colleges and universities today are becoming more and more competitive, sometimes to the point of exclusive. With that it is fair to say that entrance to certain schools may be more difficult and extensive than the others based on popularity and demand. When this happensRead MoreI Just Wanna Be Average6008 Words   |  25 Pagespoetry, scholarly research, a textbook, and two widely praised books on education in Amer ­ica. A professor in the School of Education at UCLA, Rose has won awards from the National Academy of Education, the National Council of Teachers of English, and the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. 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Symptoms of Pregnancy Essay - 1109 Words

Pregnancy Symptoms Questioning in case you are pregnant? Some sort of carrying a child check can be tips on how to realize for sure. Yet what if its too soon intended for exact final results? You might detect many simple signals involving carrying a child -- fatigue, nausea or vomiting, recurrent urination, and bust pain. Here is many specialist suggestions about how you can react to most of these symptoms in case you are looking to get pregnant. -- Weakness Extreme, unexplainable fatigue is probably the most typical sign involving early on carrying a child, inch claims Gil Uncouth, MD, an associate mentor involving obstetrics and gynecology with the California University or college School involving Medicine throughout St.†¦show more content†¦inch --some. Queasieness and Sickness Queasieness and sickness may be some of the very first clues that you are pregnant. Pin the consequence on it on climbing the bodys hormones ranges throughout early on carrying a child. One of many factors which can help pregnant mums finish the very first trimester would be the confidence that the nausea or vomiting and sickness will likely ignore twenty weeks. It in addition really helps to understand that morning sickness can be quite a good thing, inch Moore claims, since climbing degrees of the particular beta-HCG hormone, that might result in morning sickness, indicate an increasing carrying a child. Whenever you eat may possibly really make a difference, too. The critical is just not for you to make it possible for your own belly find too unfilled, inch Moore claims. Keep crackers by your bedside and have absolutely them when you leave your bed each morning. inch It is additionally recommended that you eat modest, far more recurrent meals throughout the day along with a munch just before your bed. Lemon and peppermint flavored sweets also can convenience queasiness. Prenatal vitamins also can result in nausea or vomiting for a lot of pregnant mums. 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Are you making plans to get conceived in the right period of time with certain steps? If your answers to these questions are â€Å"sure, why not?† then you need to know about the stages of your pregnancy as soon as you get the pregnancy test with positive results. In fact, pregnancy is a big event in every woman’s life and a very exciting experience for the first time. Some women feel confident that they were pregnant at the time of conception and others don’t believe until they perform

The Other Wes Moore Free Essays

The Other Wes Moore’s Profile Essay A person’s success or failure can be determined by their environment, education, choices; a number of different things. The autobiography The Other Wes Moore takes a look at two boys with the same name and eerily similar circumstances who end up in very different places in life. Wes Moore spoke at convocation about his book and what he hoped that people would get from it. We will write a custom essay sample on The Other Wes Moore or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the book he says â€Å"The chilling truth is that his story could have been mine. The tragedy is that my story could have been his. (Moore xi). These two men didn’t share the same fate because they each made a choice about what they wanted their life to become. The book truly demonstrates how the choices you make, make you. One Wes Moore showed that you can make the decision to not be a product of your environment or any other situation, and go on to be very successful in life. The way a person is shaped and guided in their developmental years does undoubtedly play a huge role in the type of person they will become people. A lot of elements come into play that helps to determine a person’s success or failure but at the end of the day the most important factor is a person’s choices. Whether those choices were made due to sways from the environment, education or influences is completely dependent on oneself. All people are accountable to themselves and in turn for their successes or failures. Environment can play a big part. Studies have proven that children in areas of poverty are far less likely to outperform students in affluent neighborhoods, but is that an excuse? The author Wes Moore and the imprisoned Wes Moore faced almost identical environmental challenges. The differences that landed these two on opposite ends of the spectrum were personal choices. Wes Moore decided to straighten up and do what not only his family wanted for him, but what he wanted for himself. He made the choice to not become a victim of circumstance while the other did not. Choices on education are also a major deciding factor on success and failure. Victor Hugo once said, â€Å"He who opens a school door, closes a prison. This speaks volumes to the occurrences in both Wes Moore’s lives. The author Wes Moore went off to military school where negative environmental influences were cut off and he was able to receive an education, which he himself considers a turning point in his life. His entire atmosphere and the dynamics of the schools he was accustomed to were altered. Although he attempted to run away several times, there was a point after speaking with his mo ther that he made the decision to stop running and embrace the experience and it helped make him the person he is today. The imprisoned Moore dropped out of school and like the overwhelming majority of African American male drop outs, ended up in the system. While the imprisoned Wes may have not had access to private or military schools, he could have finished school and decided to make an honest living. Later in his life he did decided to earn a GED and learn a trade, but he didn’t make the decision to dedicate himself to turning his life around and as soon as things got difficult turned back to what he knew instead of taking path toward something more positive. He gained mentors working under Mayor Kurt Schmoke of Baltimore, and a friend in his former Captain, Ty Hill at the military school. His decision to pursue a life full of criminal activity was his alone. The way parents and mentors influence choices are also very important. While Wes’ (the author) parents opting out of public schools and sending him to private and military institutions undoubtedly aided in his success, he also could have protested and chose not to learn anything from the opportunities presented to him, but he didn’t. He took full advantage of the opportunity presented to him. Imprisoned Wes Moore also had people who wanted the best for him. He had the opportunity to graduate from high school and take control of his own life. He chose not to listen to his mother or brother, Tony. No mother wants to see her child go down the path he did. Even his brother, who himself was involved in the drug game did not want his little brother to be a part of that. He even got into a physical fight with Moore when he found out he was selling drugs, but there came a point when Tony realized you cannot want something for someone they don’t want for themself. He desperately wanted to keep his brother off his path but when he understood his attempts fell on deaf ears he told him â€Å"If you won’t listen, that’s on you. You have potential to do so much more, go so much further. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink, right? † (Moore 71). His brother knew it was Wes’ decision, and at some point you have to take responsibility for yourself. Many people are afforded opportunities and blessing that guide them on the path of success but the truth of the world is you are the only one responsible for you. Your own choices decide your fate. Other factors are undeniably critical but they do not determine whether you will or not will be successful in life. These two men demonstrate that you decide your own destiny. The author Wes Moore became a commissioned officer from Valley Forge Military College, graduate from Johns Hopkins University, became a Rhodes Scholar, a Captain in the United States Army, businessman, and a White House Fellow under Condoleezza Rice. He has so many accomplishments while the other Wes is serving a life sentence for felony murder. That is just a testament to the fact that no one can stand in a person’s way of achievement but themself. Works Cited Moore, Wes. The Other Wes Moore: One Name, Two Fates. New York: Spiegel Grau, 2010. Print. â€Å"Popular Quotes: The Meaning an History behind â€Å"He Who Opens a School Door, Closes a Prison. â€Å"†Ã‚  BookBrowse. com. N. p. , n. d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. http://www. bookbrowse. com/quotes/detail/index. cfm? quote_number=247. How to cite The Other Wes Moore, Essay examples

Nurses Role In Vietnam Essays - Nursing, , Term Papers

Nurse's Role In Vietnam On March 15, 1965, large shipments of troops arrived in South Vietnam. These troops occupied the country until 1973. During this time, many men fought and died for the United States of America. The numerous nurses that operated on thousands of soldiers are often forgotten. The soldiers that the nurses operated on were usually blown apart and crippled for life. The nurses worked diligently to save these men. Even by working hard to save these men they were not recognized as army personnel by the public. The Vietnamese citizens and even the male American soldiers looked down upon the nurses. The United States did not acknowledge the nurses that served in the Vietnam War until 1993. The nurses that served in the Vietnam War, although commonly unrecognized, served as bravely as their soldier counterparts, and some suffered much of the same mental and physical distress. The nurses were not considered actual army personal. They were bothered by the Vietnamese street peddlers. In one incident, as a nurse was walking home, two boys asked for money. The nurses said no, as was army policy, and kept on walking. The boys then smeared black shoe polish on her dress, legs, and shoes (Smith 59). These same boys would not even consider harassing a male officer, for fear of being put in prison or even killed. Acts such as these were common because he nurses were not able to defend themselves. The nurses were sometimes treated sometimes treated similarly by male soldiers. One example took place when a nurse was walking to the hospital for her Little 2 shift. My uniform was a joke, thanks to the driver who though that it would be funny to splash me with his jeep (Smith 161). The soldiers would seldom do this to the other men in the armed forces for fear of being punished. The men did not worry about being punished when doing things to the nurses, knowing that they would never suffer any consequences. The attitudes of the men were completely different when the women went into a bar. The soldiers and generals would invite the nurses to parties and treat them nice; but, their sole purpose would be to sleep with them (Marshall 252). The officers should have treated the nurses with respect. The most severe instance in which the male officers showed that they did not recognize the nurse as army personnel was in two cases in which nurses were murdered (Marshall 23). This should not have been tolerated. The two soldiers did not even receive severe repercussions, one was court-marshaled and the other had nothing had nothing happen to him. I f these soldiers murdered male soldiers they would have been court-marshaled and possibly received the death penalty. Aside from the Vietnamese people and the army personnel, the army as a whole did not consider the nurses important. The Vietcong pounded the airbase with mortars most of the night, and the security at the hospital was not even tightened (Smith 171). This is another case in which the nurses were not considered important enough to protect. Also, there were almost no feminine products for women to buy at the Post Exchange, a military bases department store (Marshall 42). The male officers could buy anything from playing cards to clothes, but females had to do with what they had. The nurses were also absent from absent form Hollywood screen. Women were never shown in movies Little 3 because hospitals were not considered action packed enough for filming. This further made Vietnam seem like a place were only men served. It would remain that way for the next nineteen years after the war. The women who served went unnoticed until November of 1993. A lady by the name of Diane Evans fought for many years to obtain a monument for women at the Vietnam War Memorial. One response to a letter that she wrote was the wall contains the names of eight service women who were killed in the conflict, so no additional monument was needed (Evans 90). Finally, after a hard fought battle, a monument was created for the nursed that were in Vietnam. Although the nurses were given little credit fir

And now for a number of points - Emphasis

And now for a number of points And now for a number of points If you watched the recent Horizon programme on BBC Two 31 March at 9pm to be precise you cant have failed to have been moved by the power of maths and how we are literally surrounded by myriad aspects of it in our daily lives. Professor Marcus du Santoy, an Oxford mathematician led Alan Davies, comedian, through a series of interesting exercises to help him conceptualise how we assess probability, angles, and one, two, three and four spatial dimensions. Professor du Santoys enthusiasm for his subject was infectious. Maths is fundamental. We use it constantly whether we are aware of it or not. It helps us make good, rational decisions. And yet, how many of us are confident about expressing numbers in print? At first sight this may look amazingly straightforward but recent courses have revealed that lots of delegates are unsure when to use figures or words to express numbers. And many fudge a perfectly good point by using a number of rather than the exact amount. Why not see which of the following you think are correct and why? Then send us in your answers. 1. The Bank of Englands interest rate is now half of one percent. 2. Rates remain exceptionally low after 6 cuts since October last year. 3. The government looks set to inject around 30 billion into the economy through quantitative easing. 4. The government looks set to inject around 30 bn into the economy through quantitative easing. 5. Three sheep stood up to their necks in 3 feet of water. 6. 1,000 curses on your head. 7. His office is on the 1st floor. 8. Lets meet on Friday the 10th of May.

Chicago Referencing †Citing an Edited Book (Proofread My Paper)

Chicago Referencing – Citing an Edited Book Chicago Referencing – Citing an Edited Book With Chicago referencing, citing an edited book or a chapter from a collection of essays isn’t quite the same as referencing other books. There’s also a difference between the two formats used in Chicago referencing (author-date citations and the footnote and bibliography system). In the following, we run through both. Author-Date: In-Text Citations The Chicago author-date system requires giving the author’s surname, the year of publication and relevant page numbers in parentheses for citations: Ricoeur is â€Å"attuned to plurality† (Langsdorf 2002, 41). With an edited book, it’s usually the author of the chapter that you should cite. The only time to use the editor’s name in citations is when citing an edited book in its entirety. Author-Date: Reference List In the reference list, the information required for a chapter from an edited book is: Author Surname, First Name. Year of Publication. â€Å"Title of Chapter.† In Title of Book, edited by Editor Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher. For instance, the paper cited above would appear as: Langsdorf, Lenore. 2002. â€Å"The Doubleness of Subjectivity: Regenerating the Phenomenology of Intentionality.† In Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity, edited by Richard A. Cohen and James L. Marsh, 33-55. Albany: State University of New York Press. If referencing the volume as a whole, cite the editor(s) in place of the author(s): Cohen, Richard A., and James L. Marsh, eds. 2002. Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity. Albany: State University of New York Press. Note that when a book has more than one author/editor, it’s only the first listed whose names are reversed. Footnote and Bibliography: Footnote Citations In the footnote and bibliography system, superscript numbers are used to indicate a citation (e.g., 1, 2, 3). In the footnote, the information to provide for a chapter from an edited book is: n. Author Name(s), â€Å"Chapter Title,† in Book Title, ed. Editor Name(s) (Place of Publication: Publisher, Year), page number(s). In practice, this would appear as follows: 1. John van den Hengel, â€Å"Can There Be a Science of Action?,† in Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity, ed. Richard A. Cohen and James L. Marsh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 73-74. As above, cite the editor(s) in place of the author(s) when referencing an edited volume as a whole. Subsequent citations of the same source can then be abbreviated to just the author/editor surname, chapter title and page numbers: 1. John van den Hengel, â€Å"Can There Be a Science of Action?,† in Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity, ed. Richard A. Cohen and James L. Marsh (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 73-74. 2. Richard A. Cohen and James L. Marsh, eds., Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), viii. 3. van den Hengel, â€Å"Can There Be a Science of Action?,† 80. Footnote and Bibliography: Bibliography In the bibliography, the information required for a chapter from an edited book is similar to the first footnote, but with different punctuation, a complete page range and the first listed author/editor’s name reversed: van den Hengel, John. â€Å"Can There Be a Science of Action?† In Ricoeur as Another: The Ethics of Subjectivity, edited by Richard A. Cohen and James L. Marsh, 71-92. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.

Statement of Purpose for pursuing graduate study Essay

Statement of Purpose for pursuing graduate study - Essay Example I have always yearned to listen, speak, read, write, and understand the Chinese language. Although it has been more than 20 years, I still remember a couple of my Chinese teachers’ names from the elementary school that I attended at the time. My major was Chinese Literature, and my test scores in Chinese have been relatively higher than my other subjects in high school. My feelings towards furthering my graduate studies in Chinese became stronger after studying in an art school for a couple of semesters. I have realized that Art has been an interest to me as well as a hobby. I have found that my passion is in the study of Chinese. I studied at the San Francisco State University where I obtained my baccalaureate degree in Criminal Justice. My experiences as a student were very positive, therefore, I wish to pursue my graduate Chinese studies at the same institution of higher education. I would like to engage in Chinese performance arts with a modern Chinese literature focus. Being bilingual in Chinese and English will give me the opportunity to perform research using primary sources and translating those research documents taking into account the differences and similarities of the western and eastern worlds: languages, cultures, traditions, customs, idiomatic terms, and non-verbal communication. This will be an asset for professors that are performing research given the Chinese language and any other dialects I may know for translation purposes given the above mentioned elements that need to be taken into consideration. I have faith and trust that a good college education will be the embodiment of one’s academic hopes and dreams for a better life. It will not only prepare me for my chosen profession, but it will also provide me with the social and individual interactive skills that are necessary for my personal and professional life. I hope that the Chinese Program at the San Francisco State University gives me the opportunity to become part of its

Company Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Company Law - Essay Example Limited liability possessed by companies shield shareholders and directors from any costs related to the company’s failure. Genuine failure of business, which occurs even after a diligent management of a business, followed by a subsequent change of corporate entity, can be viewed as a legitimate utilization of the corporate form. Fraudulent phoenix activity, in its basic form, involves an entity carrying out its business via accumulation of debt with no intention of re-servicing the debt for wealth creation and giving a boost to the business’ cash flow (Hannigan, 2012). The corporate entity then liquidates in order to avoid being made to repay their debts. However, the business exists under a different name but is controlled by the same group of individuals. However, most fraudulent phoenix arrangements are more sophisticated than this. A typical arrangement of this nature is structured as follows: a closely held group is put up, consisting of various entities such as o ne, which plays the role of human resource management. The entity charged with hiring labor normally has one director who does not serve as the group’s ultimate controller. The entity has very few assets and minimal share capital. When the labor hire entity cannot fulfill its liabilities, it is put into liquidation or administration by the ATO. Another labor hire entity is put up, with the labor moved to work under the new entity, with the process being repeated with limited or no disruptions to daily operations. The financial benefits reaped from unpaid liabilities are then shared out among the whole group. An example of this involves a labor hire business with an annual turnover of thirty million dollars and negligible assets, which is made up of fragmented operations through fifty-three related companies. These companies lodged accurate BA statements but did not remit the amounts required under the PAYG system. The director of the single company then proceeded to liquidate all of the other companies in a matter of one week, moving his two thousand seven hundred strong work force into eight newly created entities and went on trading. The director then proceeded to flee the country with over eight million dollars in unpaid taxes. The labor hire firm continues its trade activities without complying with the set down obligations. Rule Australia’s regime of corporate law is based on the Corporations Act 2001, which provides for the separation of control and ownership and imposes specific duties on directors, aimed at ensuring that they stay loyal to the company (Macmillan, 2012). The duties that are expected from the director are, in addition to those they have, under general law. If a director gets involved in phoenix activities, then he or she breaches several director duties such as duties that concern proper information use, duty not to allow a company to keep accumulating debt during insolvency, and the duty of good faith. Fraudulent phoenix a ctivity could also involve contraventions of part 5.8A provisions of the corporations ACT that aim to protect the entitlement of employees, as well as voidable transactions. During these circumstances, civil recovery mechanisms, coupled with other general law features, which seek to protect company members and creditors against operators with unscrupulous intentions, may be started (Pennington, 2011). However, the Act required several amendments as

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY There are a number of unique plant types in the world which are on the brink of extinction, or are so extremely limited in range. For example the beautiful palms such as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and also Livistona in West Sumatra. The largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, are going to vanish unless more nature reserves are created for such remarkable plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. Rafflesia is a genus of flowering plants that is made up of 23 known species. The best known of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of being the worlds largest flower, reaching a diameter of about three feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of the British colony of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998). Rafflesia is a unique plant because of its dimensions unlike other flowers. This circumstance makes it widely known. It is also become an icon for conservation especially of the rain forest area. The rarity creates interest among nature lovers, tourists and the general public. The fact that some species may be in the brink of extinction alarms conservation groups. Its little-known biology and reproductive ecology spurs the interest of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is also thought to be one of the rarest of all plant genera which is only found in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Malaysia is very fortunate for being one of the habitats of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are threatened or endangered. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is only a Totally Protected Plant by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia it is only safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like National or State Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia flowers found in Sabah were outside of designated conservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia can be found in Malaysia, most of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. Some species of Rafflesia are endemic species. That means these species are native and can be found only in that location. For example, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii seems to be endemic to Sabah only while Rafflesia tuan-mudae endemic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in specific areas and its locations often difficult to reach, and because it only blooms for a very short time, its life cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This makes the appropriate methods to conserve it quite difficult to be found. Other than that, in Peninsular Malaysia flower buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help mothers recover after birth. The over collection of these buds has not helped with conservation efforts but further drastically reduced the number of Rafflesia in the wild, accentuating the problem the alarmingly fast transformation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a delicate plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is naturally extremely vulnerable to deforestation and development. Conservation must be done to protect this species from extinct. The expert system may help the user to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. By using an expert system, the user may gather information about approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES There are some purposes for this research. The main objectives of this research are: to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics. to develop an expert system which help the public to recognize the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. to verify system performance in order to make it applicable to the real world. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The scope of this research is mainly about the Rafflesia flower and the approaches to conserve it. This research also about the system named an expert system which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system is the tool or mechanism which contains all collected information, recommendation and opinion from many expertises and also results from so many researches done. The target users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who interested in conserving the Rafflesia plant. The system that will be developed will provide the public about the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an expert system, it would easier the public to access about this endangered plant. 1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION This thesis consist of five chapters; introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion. Chapter 2 is about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, identification of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of expert system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically have three basic components; a knowledge base, an inference engine and user interface. Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development stage of expert system for Rafflesia species identification. There are five stages in developing an expert system which are task analysis, knowledge acquisition process, prototype development, expansion and refinement and lastly verification and validation. Chapter 4 is about the result and discussion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking question to the user. Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the prototype development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system move effective and also ways to improve it. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent flowers ever known to the botanical world. It is such a big flower with odd appearance, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in bloom has been described as simply awesome (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia characteristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. 2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICS In general, Rafflesia flowers consist of five leathery petals that are orange in colour and mottled with cream-coloured warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots. The dramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest single flowers in the world; the leathery petals can reach over 90 centimetres across (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its host which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These host plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself not visible until the reproduction stage when flowers first bud through the woody vine and then open into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned today (Nais, 2001). Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, hence the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its five fleshy petals or so called perigone lobes. The diameter of the various species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the unique part of this giant flower is the flowers can take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the open bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 days only. Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are recognised and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a deep well in the centre of the flower containing a central raised disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The sexual organs are located beneath the rim of the disk, and male and female flowers are separate (Attenborough, 1995). 2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITY There are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. Table 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and Table 3.2 shows the unknown species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. 2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITAT Rafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical region of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The region is floristically distinct, with a clear boundary from surrounding region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. Number in parentheses denotes the number of Rafflesia species present in each area. Book of Rafflesia Magnificent Flower of Sabah by Kamarudin Mat Saleh (1991) A total of 23 names of Rafflesia species have been published between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a further four have inadequate type material and are treated as insufficiently known species (Meijer, 1997). The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990; Banziger, 1991; Elliot, 1991; Banziger et al., 1993). The eastern limit is Mount Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in Eastern Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in Figure 2.1. 2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF RAFFLESIA SPECIES The first description of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and meticulous description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based entirely on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The current species delimitation of Rafflesia is based on eight major characters. These eight variable characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, after Meijer 1985 are shown in Figure 2.2. Size (diameter of open flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to nearly 1 m in R. arnoldii); Diameter of the diaphragm aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii); Number of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii); Size and number of white spots (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigone lobes and diaphragm (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and small in R. arnoldii); Number and size of the windows on the inside or lower surface of the diaphragm (3-5 rings of round spots in R. micropylora, seven rings of round spots in R. kerrii, or five rings of elongate oval spots in R. pricei) Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. arnoldii); Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their occurrence (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm long in R. micropylora; in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the diaphragm; ramenta in various species may have apices branched or unbranched, swollen or crateriform); and Number of annuli at the base of the perigone tube and column, all species has either 1 or 2 (for example, 2 in R. pricei). In this research, the focus is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia can be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak. 2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-Laubach Rafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, curator of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who collected the type specimen in 1881. This species was described by H. Graft Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has open flower dimension from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone lobes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 whitish warts in radial and lateral directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm opening is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 concentric rings of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in upper type while middle and lower type is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). Figure 2.3 shows the picture of Rafflesia cantleyi. 2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar Rafflesia hasseltii was described by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an open flower dimension from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has whitish-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear contrast of snow white blots on bright brick-red background easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is whitish or pale yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the compound ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually become white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually becoming the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally linear with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 4 00 to 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the picture of Rafflesia hasseltii. 2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii Meijer Rafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the median of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the same sizes. The diaphragm opening is normally 5 concentric of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each surrounded by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those nearer to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is solitary and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 numbers of anthers. This species can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the picture of Raff lesia keithii. 2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii Meijer Rafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who collected the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and scattered warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm opening ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ramenta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand a nd Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii. 2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei Meijer Rafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of opening flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillose (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm opening is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular rings of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that grade into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous reddish-brown area just outside the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and contracting with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone tube from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms opening) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei. 2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh Latiff Rafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin, a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the year of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange throughout with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm opening. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of an thers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia tengku-adlinii. 2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae Beccari Rafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or even 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is much like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae. 2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. Wong Rafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and pattern of R. azlanii is large and continuous (not all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the open diaphragm become wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii. 2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATION Rafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The existence of this prodigious flower is precarious and it will eventually become extinct without active conservation efforts. 2.6.1 Threats Rafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle; they have a double habitat specialisation, as they can only successfully parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in specific habitats (Nais, 2001). In addition to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001). Flower buds have a high level of mortality and only 10 to 18 percent go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days; the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close enough vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely slim (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat destruction within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility problems, in parts of their range. 2.6.2 Conservation The tropical rain forest is the most threatened environment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human disturbance is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the present circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts. 2.6.3 Conservation Status of Rafflesia The World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) established five main categories to highlight the conservation status of species: Extinct (no longer known to exist in the wild) Endangered (species that have a high likelihood of becoming extinct in the near future) Vulnerable (species that may become endangered in the near future because populations are decreasing in size throughout the range) Rare (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to limited geographical ranges or low population densities) Insufficiently known (species that probably belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category). The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be reliably assessed by acquiring and analyzing extensive field data of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on current knowledge which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation Status and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4. 2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve Rafflesia There are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). One of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean leaving it to grow wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often impossible to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involves: i) Protection inside established Conservation Areas One of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive trampling, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanisms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to minimize its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas need to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001). ii) Designating New Conservation Areas It may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more plausible strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow larger area to be conserved to protect their habitat and also their population. iii) Protection of Sites in other Areas Many Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very important in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can generate income for the landowners. The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural occurrence [Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001)]. This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical garden and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues culture for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into cultivation has always been appealing. Its cultivation would important not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards utilization of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001). Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997; Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example: seed germination, tissues culture of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991; Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991; Zuhud et al., 1998). These failures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation possibly may never be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999. 2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTION Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that is principally concerned with using computational models to understand how humans think (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, knowledge representation, logical and probabilistic reasoning, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982). The most successful application of Artificial Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support System (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer program that act as a consultant or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005). According to Turban Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of knowledge (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially trained or talented people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consultants have specific knowledge and experience in the problem area. They are aware of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may incur if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available. Expert systems are an attempt to mimic human experts (Turban, Rainer, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the needed information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from conventional programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains precisely defined logical formulas and data, and if any data element is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic information and can function with incomplete information. 2.7.1 Components of Expert System An expert system is typically composed of at least three primary components. These are the inference engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowledge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable period of time. Human experts solve problems by using their factual knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and inference engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system. The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the expert system and the user. An expert is someone who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain. 2.7.1.1 Knowledge Base Expert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that into Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY There are a number of unique plant types in the world which are on the brink of extinction, or are so extremely limited in range. For example the beautiful palms such as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and also Livistona in West Sumatra. The largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, are going to vanish unless more nature reserves are created for such remarkable plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. Rafflesia is a genus of flowering plants that is made up of 23 known species. The best known of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of being the worlds largest flower, reaching a diameter of about three feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of the British colony of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998). Rafflesia is a unique plant because of its dimensions unlike other flowers. This circumstance makes it widely known. It is also become an icon for conservation especially of the rain forest area. The rarity creates interest among nature lovers, tourists and the general public. The fact that some species may be in the brink of extinction alarms conservation groups. Its little-known biology and reproductive ecology spurs the interest of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is also thought to be one of the rarest of all plant genera which is only found in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Malaysia is very fortunate for being one of the habitats of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are threatened or endangered. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is only a Totally Protected Plant by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia it is only safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like National or State Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia flowers found in Sabah were outside of designated conservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia can be found in Malaysia, most of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. Some species of Rafflesia are endemic species. That means these species are native and can be found only in that location. For example, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii seems to be endemic to Sabah only while Rafflesia tuan-mudae endemic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in specific areas and its locations often difficult to reach, and because it only blooms for a very short time, its life cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This makes the appropriate methods to conserve it quite difficult to be found. Other than that, in Peninsular Malaysia flower buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help mothers recover after birth. The over collection of these buds has not helped with conservation efforts but further drastically reduced the number of Rafflesia in the wild, accentuating the problem the alarmingly fast transformation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a delicate plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is naturally extremely vulnerable to deforestation and development. Conservation must be done to protect this species from extinct. The expert system may help the user to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. By using an expert system, the user may gather information about approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES There are some purposes for this research. The main objectives of this research are: to identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics. to develop an expert system which help the public to recognize the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. to verify system performance in order to make it applicable to the real world. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The scope of this research is mainly about the Rafflesia flower and the approaches to conserve it. This research also about the system named an expert system which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system is the tool or mechanism which contains all collected information, recommendation and opinion from many expertises and also results from so many researches done. The target users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who interested in conserving the Rafflesia plant. The system that will be developed will provide the public about the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an expert system, it would easier the public to access about this endangered plant. 1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION This thesis consist of five chapters; introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion. Chapter 2 is about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, identification of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of expert system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically have three basic components; a knowledge base, an inference engine and user interface. Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development stage of expert system for Rafflesia species identification. There are five stages in developing an expert system which are task analysis, knowledge acquisition process, prototype development, expansion and refinement and lastly verification and validation. Chapter 4 is about the result and discussion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking question to the user. Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the prototype development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system move effective and also ways to improve it. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent flowers ever known to the botanical world. It is such a big flower with odd appearance, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in bloom has been described as simply awesome (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia characteristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. 2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICS In general, Rafflesia flowers consist of five leathery petals that are orange in colour and mottled with cream-coloured warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots. The dramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest single flowers in the world; the leathery petals can reach over 90 centimetres across (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its host which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These host plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself not visible until the reproduction stage when flowers first bud through the woody vine and then open into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned today (Nais, 2001). Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, hence the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its five fleshy petals or so called perigone lobes. The diameter of the various species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the unique part of this giant flower is the flowers can take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the open bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 days only. Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are recognised and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a deep well in the centre of the flower containing a central raised disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The sexual organs are located beneath the rim of the disk, and male and female flowers are separate (Attenborough, 1995). 2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITY There are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. Table 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and Table 3.2 shows the unknown species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. 2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITAT Rafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical region of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The region is floristically distinct, with a clear boundary from surrounding region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. Number in parentheses denotes the number of Rafflesia species present in each area. Book of Rafflesia Magnificent Flower of Sabah by Kamarudin Mat Saleh (1991) A total of 23 names of Rafflesia species have been published between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a further four have inadequate type material and are treated as insufficiently known species (Meijer, 1997). The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990; Banziger, 1991; Elliot, 1991; Banziger et al., 1993). The eastern limit is Mount Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in Eastern Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in Figure 2.1. 2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF RAFFLESIA SPECIES The first description of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and meticulous description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based entirely on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The current species delimitation of Rafflesia is based on eight major characters. These eight variable characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, after Meijer 1985 are shown in Figure 2.2. Size (diameter of open flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to nearly 1 m in R. arnoldii); Diameter of the diaphragm aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii); Number of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii); Size and number of white spots (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigone lobes and diaphragm (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and small in R. arnoldii); Number and size of the windows on the inside or lower surface of the diaphragm (3-5 rings of round spots in R. micropylora, seven rings of round spots in R. kerrii, or five rings of elongate oval spots in R. pricei) Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. arnoldii); Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their occurrence (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm long in R. micropylora; in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the diaphragm; ramenta in various species may have apices branched or unbranched, swollen or crateriform); and Number of annuli at the base of the perigone tube and column, all species has either 1 or 2 (for example, 2 in R. pricei). In this research, the focus is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia can be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak. 2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-Laubach Rafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, curator of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who collected the type specimen in 1881. This species was described by H. Graft Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has open flower dimension from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone lobes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 whitish warts in radial and lateral directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm opening is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 concentric rings of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in upper type while middle and lower type is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). Figure 2.3 shows the picture of Rafflesia cantleyi. 2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar Rafflesia hasseltii was described by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an open flower dimension from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has whitish-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear contrast of snow white blots on bright brick-red background easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is whitish or pale yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the compound ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually become white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually becoming the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally linear with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 4 00 to 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the picture of Rafflesia hasseltii. 2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii Meijer Rafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the median of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the same sizes. The diaphragm opening is normally 5 concentric of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each surrounded by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those nearer to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is solitary and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 numbers of anthers. This species can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the picture of Raff lesia keithii. 2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii Meijer Rafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who collected the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and scattered warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm opening ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ramenta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand a nd Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii. 2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei Meijer Rafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of opening flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillose (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm opening is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular rings of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that grade into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous reddish-brown area just outside the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and contracting with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone tube from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms opening) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei. 2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh Latiff Rafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin, a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the year of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange throughout with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm opening. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of an thers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia tengku-adlinii. 2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae Beccari Rafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or even 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is much like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae. 2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. Wong Rafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and pattern of R. azlanii is large and continuous (not all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the open diaphragm become wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii. 2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATION Rafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The existence of this prodigious flower is precarious and it will eventually become extinct without active conservation efforts. 2.6.1 Threats Rafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle; they have a double habitat specialisation, as they can only successfully parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in specific habitats (Nais, 2001). In addition to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001). Flower buds have a high level of mortality and only 10 to 18 percent go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days; the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close enough vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely slim (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat destruction within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility problems, in parts of their range. 2.6.2 Conservation The tropical rain forest is the most threatened environment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human disturbance is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the present circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts. 2.6.3 Conservation Status of Rafflesia The World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) established five main categories to highlight the conservation status of species: Extinct (no longer known to exist in the wild) Endangered (species that have a high likelihood of becoming extinct in the near future) Vulnerable (species that may become endangered in the near future because populations are decreasing in size throughout the range) Rare (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to limited geographical ranges or low population densities) Insufficiently known (species that probably belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category). The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be reliably assessed by acquiring and analyzing extensive field data of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on current knowledge which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation Status and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4. 2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve Rafflesia There are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). One of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean leaving it to grow wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often impossible to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involves: i) Protection inside established Conservation Areas One of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive trampling, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanisms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to minimize its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas need to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001). ii) Designating New Conservation Areas It may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more plausible strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow larger area to be conserved to protect their habitat and also their population. iii) Protection of Sites in other Areas Many Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very important in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can generate income for the landowners. The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural occurrence [Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001)]. This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical garden and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues culture for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into cultivation has always been appealing. Its cultivation would important not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards utilization of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001). Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997; Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example: seed germination, tissues culture of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991; Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991; Zuhud et al., 1998). These failures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation possibly may never be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999. 2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTION Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that is principally concerned with using computational models to understand how humans think (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, knowledge representation, logical and probabilistic reasoning, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982). The most successful application of Artificial Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support System (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer program that act as a consultant or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005). According to Turban Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of knowledge (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially trained or talented people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consultants have specific knowledge and experience in the problem area. They are aware of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may incur if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available. Expert systems are an attempt to mimic human experts (Turban, Rainer, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the needed information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from conventional programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains precisely defined logical formulas and data, and if any data element is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic information and can function with incomplete information. 2.7.1 Components of Expert System An expert system is typically composed of at least three primary components. These are the inference engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowledge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable period of time. Human experts solve problems by using their factual knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and inference engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system. The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the expert system and the user. An expert is someone who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain. 2.7.1.1 Knowledge Base Expert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that into